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Evеry languаge аllows diffеrеnt kinds оf variаtions: gеоgraphical оr territоriаl, pеrhаps thе mоst оbviоus, stуlistiс, the differеncе bеtwееn thе writtеn аnd thе spоkеn fоrm оf thе stаndаrd nаtionаl lаnguage and оthers. It is the nаtional lаnguage of Englаnd prоper, thе USA, Australia, New Zealand аnd sоme prоvincеs оf Cаnada. It is the оfficial lаnguage of Wales, Scotland, in Gibraltar and on the island of Malta. Mоdern linguistiсs distinguishеs tеrritorial vаriants of a nаtional lаnguage and lоcal dialеcts. Vаriants of a lаnguage are rеgional vаrieties of a stаndard litеrary lаnguage chаracterized by sоme minоr pеculiarities in the sоund systеm, vоcabulary and grаmmar and by thеir оwn literаry nоrms.
Thematic justification
The prоblem of suсh a thеme hаs gоt a grеat thеoretical mеaning fоr аnalysis оf thе fоrm/functiоn rеlation in lаnguage: thе sаme fоrm pеrforms mоre thаn оne funсtion. Tо gеnerate the уoung studеnts lеxicon, the spеaker hаs to use quаlitatively diffеrent typеs of knowlеdge, bоth linguistiс аnd еxtralinguistiс (intеractive аnd еncyclopaedic), аs wеll аs thе аbility tо reаson. A numbеr оf thеories trу to explаin whу wе shоuld usе “еxtra wоrds” sоmetimes аnd hоw wе undеrstand thеir nоn- literаl mеaning, but thе rеsearch is still fаr frоm bеing cоmplеte.
The practical value of the term paper liеs in thе fаct thаt it is impоssible to rеаch a high lеvel of linguistiс cоmpetеnce withоut undеrstanding thе nаture of spееch аnd knоwing tуpical yоuths spееch of a pаrticular lаnguage.
Thus the hypothesis оf оur thеme is thе fоllowing: tо studу a lexicоn of yоung gеneration of Аmericans, it bеcomes a littlе mоre аccessible to prоfessionals аs it cаn not аlways bе fоund in gеneral dictionаries.
The object of the term paper is the “Modern slang n the USA”.
The subject of the term paper is slаng.
The term paper is structured as following: introduction, chapter one, chapter two, conclusion, bibliography.
In the first chapter we consider: the notion of slang, spoken English and Slang.Origin and source of slang, development of slang.
In the second chapter we study the types of slang.
Chapter 1.
1.1 The notion of slang
Slang simply is the informal language that is used in everyday interactions. It is defined as “an ever changing set of colloquial words and phrases that speakers use to establish or reinforce social identity or cohesiveness within a group or with a trend or fashion in society at large” [29; p. 11].
Martin, Weber, and Burant (1997) claim that aggressive messages are different from slang when slang is not used with the intent to offend people (cited in Mazer & Hunt, 2008). Using slang cannot be considered as an aggressive act even though there are some slang words that might be considered offensive. It can only be considered offensive if someone intentionally said a slang word to offend another.
Crystal (2003) specified fifteen “varied functions” of slang. He indicated that number 13 is “the primary function of slang” which is “to show that one belongs to a certain school, trade, or profession, artistic or intellectual set, or social class” (p. 182). In other words, slang is used to interact or to “establish contact” (p. 182). Similarly, Mary Bucholtz (2007) indicated that slang is used to construct identity, especially youth identity. Bucholtz investigated the California teenagers’ use of slang and found that slang is used as an interpersonal source to attain specific interactional goals.
As indicated earlier, slang can be positive and negative. Mazer and Hunt (2008) specify that positive slang is the informal language that “a speaker utilizes to signal identification with the listener” [29; p.22].For instance, using words such as “cool,” “sweet,” or “awesome” is regarded as positive slang. On the other hand, negative slang is the informal language that “may be perceived as offensive by the listener” [31; p. 22]. For example, using words such as “jerk,” “waste,” or “shit” are regarded as negative slang and therefore offensive.
Examples of Slang
Since formal interaction is what is being taught in EFL classes, ELLs acquire certain expressions and language uses in slang through interaction with native speakers of the language. They find out that there are expressions that are used to express particular messages that differ from what they have learned. For instance, in textbooks, ELLs acquire new ways of asking about well-being rather than just using the expression “How are you?” In informal English, most of the people tend to ask questions like “Sup?”, “what’s up?”, “How is it going?”, or “how’re you doing?” that are commonly used expressions in informal English depending on the context and the relationships between the speakers. ELLs modify their use of formal language to slang to belong to the community they are interacting with.
There are other examples of expressions that might be new and unknown to ELLs and might be incomprehensible because of the “lexical items” of “unfamiliar slang” [Eble, 1996, p. 98]. The following example was chosen from Facebook (for privacy purposes the commenters’ names will be C1 and C2 whereas the name of the person who posted this will be P).
The Facebook post was: Beautiful day for a drive! Heading over to Penn State and I’m not leaving until I have a place to live!! C1: Good luck! There’s a room on the Main Line available… just sayin’. C2: If you are ever in need of dinner (or wine), give a holler! Good luck on the apartment-hunting! P: Thanks everybody for the well wishes! And C2 — I’ll definitely hold you to that! C2: absolutely.
Facebook users usually write their posts in slang, especially when commenting on posts. The previous example shows that by using the expression “give a holler,” C2 meant, “call me.” The word ‘holler’ basically means to cry, call out, or shout out. Also, sometimes African-Americans use the word, “Holla” to mean the same thing; they say, “Holla at me” to mean “call me” or if something is really “cool” or really good, they shout “HOLLLAAA”. P responded by saying “I’ll definitely hold you to that” to make sure that person keeps her promise. So, when someone “holds someone to something,” she is making this person accountable for what she has said. In the way that it was used it, it was a friendly expression that meant like “I’ll keep that in mind” more than “I’m counting on you.” Another point to consider is C1’s use of “just sayin’.” ‘g’ is omitted in “saying” because it is pronounced like that in informal English.
Another example that can be used as video illustrations of the meanings and uses of certain expressions in slang is taken from YouTube. Jennifer ESL (2007), an English teacher, created seven videoed lessons to help students of English understand how to use slang appropriately and not misuse or overuse it. She concentrated on how slang expressions are used, what they mean, and what pronunciation and grammar changes happen during speech.
Example (1) 1. Jennifer: You up for a movie tonight? 2. Sally: I dunno. I’m kinda tired. 3. Jennifer: We could take in an early show. Say 6 o’clock? 4. Sally: okay. [Jennifer ESL, 2007]
In this example, Jennifer used the expressions ‘be up for’, ‘take in’, and ‘say’. To ask Sally whether she is interested in or in the mood for going somewhere to watch a movie, Jennifer used the ‘be up for’. In line three of the conversation Jennifer uses the expression “take in’ to refer to going to see a movie. She also used the expression say to make a specific suggestion about time. The same example shows how pronunciation changes in slang. In line 2 of the conversation, Sally used ‘dunno’. This is because “don’t know” often changes to ‘dunno’. Also, Sally used the phrase ‘kinda’ instead of saying “I’m kind of tired”. In slang, ‘kind of’ often changes to ‘kinda’. Example 1 also demonstrates changes in grammar when using slang. In line 1, instead of asking “Are you up for a movie tonight?” Jennifer dropped the auxiliary and asked “you up for a movie tonight?” Another example that shows changes in grammar is in line 3 when Jennifer suggested a time for the movie. She said, “say 6 o’clock” in this suggestion, Jennifer omitted either “let’s” or “shall we”.
The previous examples show how slang is used and provide explana……..
Bibliography
1. Крупнов В.Н. В творческой лаборатории переводчика.- М,: Международные отношения, 1976
2. Маковский М.М. Английские социальные диалекты.- М.: Высшая школа, 1982
3. Матюшенков В.С. Словарь английского сленга: Особенности употребления сленга в Северной Америке, Великобритании и Австралии.- М.: Флинта, 2002
4. Селинджер Д.Д. Над пропастью во ржи — Пермь: Пермская книга, 1994
5. Серия «Банк Рефератов»:/ новые рефераты на английском языке.- Ростов на Дону: Феникс, 2002
Foreign References
6. Anne Tyler A Patchwork Planetz.- New York: Ballantine Books, 2001
7. Erin Bouma The English of down under.// English.-2001,- №4
8. Ernest Hemingway To Have and Have Not.- M.: International relations, 1979
9. Galperin I.R. Stylistics.- M.: Vysshaya Shkola, 1981
10. Kukharenko V.A. A Book of Practice in Stylistics.- M.: Bysshaya Shkola, 1986
11. Lighter, Jonathan E.; J. Ball; J. OConnor, edc, Random House Historical Dictionary of American Slang. Random House, 1994
12. Marian Keyes Rachels Holiday.- USA: Avon Books, 1999
13. Paul Falla; Collin Howlett The Oxford Russian Dictionary.- Oxford- Moscow, 1999
14. Pavlova N.V. and Y.A.Kuleshova, Slang as a Part of the English Language.-English 2003 №32-p.5-10
15. Raymond Chandler Farewell, my Lovely. -M.: Raduga publishers, 1983
16. Salinger J.D. The Catcher in the Rye.- M.: Progress Publishers, 1979
Dictionaries and Encyclopedias:
17. Crystal, D. (2003). The Cambridge encyclopedia if the English language (2nd ed.).
18. Dictionary of contemporary slang — Tony Thorne. Published by Bloomsbury / London. 1997.
18. Dictionary of American Slang. Random House, 1994 .
20. Partridge, Eric. Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English. Macmillan, 1985. A classic, with 7,500 entries; first published in 1937.
21. The Concise Columbia Encyclopedia, Third Edition Copyright © 1994, Columbia University Press.
22. The Encarta World English Dictionary, published by St. Martins Press. 1999
23. The Online Slang Dictionary.
24. The Oxford dictionary of modern slang — John Ayto / John Simpson.Published by Oxford University Press. 1992.
25. The Oxford pocket Russian dictionary. Oxford. 1994.
26. Wentworth H., Flexner S.B. Dictionary of American Slang. 2nd supplemented edition. New York, Crowell, 1975.
Internet resources:
27. (20.11.16)
28. https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCsCCS3Opi0nKPoOVpbfu.. (11.11.16)
Magazines to Foreign References
29. Eble, C. (1996). Slang and sociability. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.
30. Martin, M. M., Weber, K., & Burant, P. A. (1997). Students’ perceptions of a teacher’s use of slang and verbal aggressiveness in a lecture.
31. Mazer, J. P. & Hunt, S. K. (2008). “Cool” Communication in the classroom: A preliminary examination of student perceptions of instructor use of positive slang. Qualitative Research Reports in Communication, 9(1), 20 — 28.
32. Meyerhoff, M. (2011). Introducing sociolinguistics (2nd ed.). London; UK: Routledge.
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